History of Thought and Methodology in Pluralist Economics Education

The purpose of the paper is to develop the argument that history of thought and methodology should form part of the content of pluralist teaching in economics, where the aim of this teaching is to equip students to exercise their own judgement as economists. Discussion of the nature and scope of economics, with examples from history, helps students understand what is involved in considering a range of approaches and methods (rather than uncritically accepting one general approach, but without resorting to 'anything goes'). A way of teaching about the current crisis is used as an exemplar.

Economic Development in the Scottish Enlightenment: Ideas as Cause and Effect

The purpose of this paper is to consider why Scottish Enlightenment thought should have generated a particular theory of economic development. We explore the particular context of the Scottish Enlightenment, focusing both on understandings of cultural difference within Scotland, and the particular content of Gaelic culture, as influencing the character of Scottish Enlightenment thought. The specific ideas about economic development in the Scottish Enlightenment period involve further circularity. One of the key arguments was that economic development encourages creativity and ideas, which promote productivity growth. The Enlightenment itself, as a set of ideas, can be seen in part as the outcome of earlier economic development in Scotland, particularly in the form of agricultural improvement. This process of innovation or ‘art', encouraged by the division of labour, applies particularly to the fourth of the stages of economic development: commercialisation (the stages approach being a characteristic feature of Enlightenment thought)

Animal Spirits Revisited

The term ‘animal spirits’ has returned to academic and public discourse in a way which departs significantly from the original use of the term by Keynes. The new behavioural economics literature uses the term to refer to a range of behaviour which falls outside what is normally understood as rational. This treatment follows from the mainstream dichotomisation between rationality and irrationality. However Keynes explained that, given fundamental uncertainty, rationality alone was insufficient to justify action. Animal spirits was the name he gave to the (psychological) urge to action which explained decisions being taken in spite of uncertainty; animal spirits for him were neither rational nor irrational. Nor are they beyond analysis. We explore how the nature and role of animal spirits can vary according to context (as between different sectors, types of firm and within firms). This analysis indicates ways in which policy can promote structural change to strengthen animal spirits in the long term as well as offset short-term weakening in animal spirits

Different Approaches to the Financial Crisis

The economic crisis has exposed shortcomings in standard economic theory and provided an impetus for new economic thinking. But the theoretical debate in the wake of the crisis has been unduly constrained by the terms of the mainstream approach to economic theory. Like any approach, it is characterised by a way of framing reality, giving meaning to terms and setting criteria for good argument. It also determines how any economic theory is understood, whether from the history of economic thought or from the contemporary literature. But there are other approaches to economics which would open up the field to a much wider range of possibilities for new economic thinking. Addressing the challenge that any reader bases her understanding on her own approach, the purpose of this paper is to attempt to explain what it means to consider different approaches and why it matters for policy. This is done by discussing two features of the financial crisis which pose particular problems for economic theory. These are the role of changing market sentiment in driving asset prices on the one hand and the breakdown of trust relationships in banking on the other (the moral hazard issue). We will see how these are addressed by mainstream theory and by alternative approaches. First, market sentiment is discussed within the mainstream rational-optimising framework, where risk is quantifiable, and compared with the Keynesian approach based on the general uncertainty of knowledge, where reason, evidence and sentiment are integrated. The moral hazard issue is then discussed in its mainstream form in terms of rational opportunism and in its institutionalist form in terms of the foundation of social relations (including relations between institutions) in trust. It is shown that different ways of approaching theorising in each case imply different policy measures. It is argued further that an exclusively deductive mathematical approach to analysis of market sentiment and trust is unduly limiting and that a more pluralist approach would more fully address the issues

Codes of Ethics for Economists: A Pluralist View

Within the discussion of ethics and economics some have considered designing a code of ethics for economists. But the idea of such a code is potentially problematic from a pluralist standpoint. Some possibilities are discussed here to show that any code concerning the behaviour of economists presumes a particular view of human nature and thus of professionalism. Further, issues of socio-economic power in the profession pose problems for the interpretation and implementation of some possible principles, notably those referring to standards of competence and truth-seeking. It is therefore concluded that any code of ethics should take the form of general guidelines, with primacy given to the ethics of pluralism: tolerance, even-handedness and open-mindedness, on which the interpretation of all other ethical considerations rests

Ontology and Theory for a Redesign of European Monetary Union

The Greek debt crisis opened up the policy discourse over Europe to the extent of an unprecedented extent of questioning of the original design of the Eurozone. Such a rethink requires an examination of how the European economy functions and the appropriate theoretical approach to analysing it. The purpose of this paper is to revisit the thinking behind the design of European Monetary Union and behind the Post Keynesian critique. While the mainstream response is couched in terms of addressing impediments to economic convergence through market forces, the Post Keynesian response focuses on the forces for divergence which the Eurozone framework currently exacerbates. In particular we argue that a focus on the forces for economic divergence and financial instability in Europe requires any monetary union to be supported by a system of fiscal support and a cohesive approach to bank regulation and support

Neoclassicism, critical realism and the Cambridge methodological tradition

The purpose of this paper is to consider Lawson's three-way classification of economics, whereby neoclassicism is defined in terms of inconsistency between ontology and methodology. The notion of classification is explored in order to consider Lawson's well-defined triad in relation to the more fluid, provisional, porous classifications within critical realist analysis itself. The difficulties with fitting economists into any one of the triad is illustrated by considering economics at Cambridge, not least because the methodology of individual figures is open to different interpretations. It is concluded that the main thrust of Lawson's argument is rhetorical, aimed at denting the insistence on mathematical modelling. His definition of neoclassical economics is directly relevant to new developments within the mainstream as well as to heterodox modellers, implying that the onus is on both to argue that modelling is justified in particular circumstances

Animal Spirits and Organization

The purpose of this paper is to explore the scope for analysing animal spirits as a social and cultural phenomenon which is heavily influenced by the organisational structure of firms and industries as well as by national structures. Animal spirits are considered in terms of unsubstantiated optimism, low uncertainty perception and low uncertainty aversion. We distinguish between animal spirits with respect to expanding capacity on the one hand and animal spirits with respect to innovation on the other. The first case is analysed primarily in terms of fluctuations in spontaneous optimism and uncertainty perception, while the emphasis for the second is more on the enduring dispositions of organisations and individuals. Animal spirits in both contexts are shown to be influenced by structural factors which are open to policy management

Critical Realism and Economics

First paragraph: To many it might seem obvious that economics is concerned with reality. Its Greek roots are found in the management of the household. The modern day subject matter is more aggregated, but still refers to real actions: buying, selling, employing, working, using up, and so on. If it is not concerned with reality, what can it be concerned with